What is actually inside the products we buy?

Leather is made from animal skin that has been treated (tanned) to prevent decay. Full-grain, top-grain and genuine leather are different grades; the term “genuine leather” does not mean the highest grade.

Bonded leather is manufactured from leather fibres or scraps, combined with a binder and applied to a backing material. It still contains animal-derived material, even though it may be marketed using terms such as “leather match” or “reconstituted leather”.

Synthetic leather is typically a fabric backing coated with polyurethane (PU) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). It is not animal-derived in itself, but processes, adhesives or backing may vary. PVC raises distinct environmental questions about additives and disposal. Terms like “vegan leather” and “leatherette” generally describe these materials.

Wool is a fibre from sheep and certain other animals; silk is produced by silkworms and is often obtained in ways that kill the insect inside the cocoon. Some households choose to avoid both. Peace silk and similar terms describe alternative processes, but claims vary, and are worth verifying.

Some glues are produced from animal collagen (sometimes called hide glue or bone glue). Most industrial adhesives today are synthetic, but manufacturers often cannot easily confirm the composition of every adhesive used in assembly. This is a typical “common unknown”.

Brushes may use natural animal bristles, plant fibres or synthetic filaments. Natural bristle brushes are common in some painting, shaving, cleaning and grooming brushes. Packaging typically states the material, but not always.

Down and feather fillings are used in duvets, pillows and jackets. Labels can specify “down” and “feather” content separately. Some have standards for how birds were treated, but these standards do not address a household's wish to avoid animal-derived materials altogether.

Vegan certification schemes, such as the Vegan Society's trademark, set standards covering animal-derived ingredients and animal testing within a defined scope. The scope varies by scheme and product category, and certifiers may not assess every part of a complex product like a vehicle. Certification is evidence about a specific scope, not a universal guarantee.

Recycled-content claims describe the proportion of material that came from recovered sources. They say nothing about whether the material is animal-derived: recycled leather fibre, for instance, is still leather-derived. Check what percentage is recycled and whether it is pre-consumer or post-consumer waste.

Refrigerants differ in their global warming potential (GWP) if released. Older types also damaged the ozone layer. Modern equipment uses a range of substances. Leakage during use and disposal is the main concern, so installation quality and end-of-life handling matter.

Energy labels give a standardised rating or estimate of energy use so you can compare similar products. Scales and formats differ between countries and have been revised over time, so a letter class from one market or year does not translate directly to another. Labels cover efficiency, not the materials a product contains.